Measuring Scotland’s Performance as a Leading Fair Work Nation

Footnotes

1 Scottish Government (2022) A stronger and more resilient Scotland: the Programme for Government 2022 to 2023.

2 Fair Work Convention (2020) Fair Work in Scotland.

3 Indicators of the Fair Work Measurement Framework are updated with their most recent available statistic as of 10/03/2023.

4 Data only available for 2021.

5 Data only available for 2022.

6 Fair Work Convention (2020) Fair Work in Scotland.

7 Office for National Statistics (2022) Job quality in the UK – analysis of job quality indicators: 2021.

8 Understanding Society is a large scale longitudinal survey of households in the United Kingdom that captures key information about social and economic circumstances, as well as attitudes, lifestyle, health, family relationships and employment.

9 The Working Lives Scotland survey is a survey supporting the Chartered Institutes of Personnel and Development (CIPD) annual report on job quality in Scotland. More information, as well as the 2020, 2021, and 2022 Working Lives Scotland reports.

10 The gap presented in this column represents the difference between the performance of the leading country and the performance of Scotland.

11 Data from 2021 for all countries, except Ireland for which data is from 2020.

12 Data from 2021 for all countries, except Iceland for which data is from 2019.

13 For this indicator, we use United Kingdom data for Scotland due to data unavailability.

14 Data from 2019 for all countries except for Denmark and Iceland for which data is from 2018.

15 Data from 2019 for all countries except for: Denmark and Finland (2018 data), and Ireland (2017 data).

16 Data from 2021 for all countries, except for Ireland for which data is from 2020.

17 Data from 2021 for all countries, except for Iceland for which data is from 2019.

18 For this indicator, we use United Kingdom data for Scotland due to data unavailability.

19 Data from 2019 for all countries except for: (i) the United Kingdom (2020), and (ii) Denmark and Iceland (2018).

20 Data from 2019 for all countries except for: Denmark and Finland (2018 data), and Ireland (2017 data).

21 Scottish Government (2021) International mechanisms to revalue women’s work: Research exploring and evaluating international mechanisms that aim to revalue or result in the revaluation of women’s work. Director-General Communities and Centre for Research in Employment and Work, University of Greenwich.

22 Indicators in the Fair Work Measurement Framework are updated with their most recent available statistic as of 10/03/2023.

23 The Labour Force Survey (QLFS) is a cross-sectional quarterly survey of over 84,000 individuals in 2021, including 6,200 individuals in Scotland (based on October – December 2021 sample). It is important to note that indicators for which data is drawn from the QLFS, the figures represent the data collected in the final quarter of the designated year (October – December). Additionally sample sizes are significantly smaller than the Annual Population Survey (APS). The APS is an annual survey of over 212,000 individuals across the United Kingdom in 2021, including over 22,000 individuals in Scotland, comprising quarterly observations from the LFS, and booster samples. The QLFS and APS, share the same core questionnaire, although some questions included in the QLFS may not be included in the APS. Both datasets are collated by the Office for National Statistics and used to inform National labour market Statistics. Wherever possible, we opted for including indicators published by the ONS, UK Government and/or Scottish Government. Most indicators from the QLFS and APS included in the Measurement Framework, are published in Statistics releases by the Office for National Statistics, the UK Government, and/or Scottish Government. For the indicators that are not published, the calculations were conducted by Alma Economics using APS and/or QLFS data accessed through the UK Data Service. Information on how each figure presented was calculated can be found in Appendix A.

24 Source: Alma Economics analysis of Annual Population Survey data, Data source: Annual Population Survey indicator tables queried from Nomis: official census and labour market statistics, Office for National Statistics.

25 Annual Population Survey indicator tables queried from Nomis: official census and labour market statistics, Office for National Statistics.

26 The 2019 and 2021 figures for the indicators for working days lost as a result of (i) ill health and disease, (ii) stress, anxiety or depression, and (iii) workplace injury, as the Health and Safety Executive publishes three year average figures for these indicators.

27 The indicators on the average number of working days lost per worker due to (i) workplace injuries, (ii) stress, depression and anxiety, and (iii) ill health and disease, as well as the self-reported rate of (i) workplace non-fatal injuries, (ii) stress, depression or anxiety and (iii) illness caused by work are based on annual measures that are then calculated as 3-year averages by the Health and Safety Executive. Three-year averages of these indicators are considered more robust than single-year figures. More information on the National Performance Framework indicator “Prevalence of self-reported illness caused or made worse by work in the previous 12 months”.

28 Fair Work Convention (2020) Fair Work in Scotland.

29 The Consumer Prices Index including owner occupiers' housing costs (CPIH) produced by the Office for National Statistics.

30 Annual Population Survey indicator tables queried from Nomis: official census and labour market statistics, Office for National Statistics.

31 Chief Economist Directorate, Scottish Government (2023) BICS weighted Scotland estimates: data to wave 80.

32 Zemanik, M. (2022) Working Lives Scotland 2022. London: Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development.

33 Department for Business and Trade and Department for Business, Energy & Industrial Strategy (2022) Trade Union Statistics.

34 Fair Work Convention (2020) Fair Work in Scotland.

35 Office for National Statistics (2022) Job quality in the UK – analysis of job quality indicators: 2021.

36 Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (2022) Working Lives Scotland, Dedicated analysis of job quality and its impact on working lives in Scotland.

37 Zemanik, M. (2022) Working Lives Scotland 2022. London: Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development.

38 Office for National Statistics (ONS), released 16 December 2022, ONS website, article, Job quality in the UK - analysis of job quality dimensions: 2021.

39 Information on questions included in the Work Conditions module of Understanding Society.

^[40] Information on questions included in the Job Satisfaction module of Understanding Society.

41 Information on questions included in the Employees module of Understanding Society.

42 Information on questions included in the Current Employment module of Understanding Society.

43 Trade Union Congress (2021) Only 1 in 218 workplaces inspected for safety failures during pandemic, TUC finds.

44 Health and Safety Executive Question for Department for Work and Pensions

45 Conditions of Employment and Health and Safety

46 Employment Agency Standards Inspectorate Information

47 Timewise (2022) The Timewise Scottish Flexible Jobs Index.

48 Scottish Government (2022) A stronger and more resilient Scotland: the Programme for Government 2022 to 2023.

49 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development – OECD.Stat.

50 Most indicators in the International Framework are drawn from the annual estimates based on the Labour Force Survey and the Annual Population Survey for Scotland and England, and the EU-Labour Force Survey for the comparator countries. Although samples sizes and sampling strategies may differ, the indicator definitions across these datasets are similar enough to allow comparisons. The APS/LFS, and the EU LFS are the datasets used to inform labour market statistics published by International Organisations such as the OECD and ILO, and adhere to ILO’s LFS definitions. Indicators drawn from the Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings, and the Working Lives Survey for Scotland and/or England, may vary more significantly both in terms of sampling techniques and strategies, and indicator definitions compared to international sources.

51 Data from 2021 for all countries, except Ireland for which data is from 2020.

52 Data from 2021 for all countries, except Iceland for which data is from 2019.

53 For this indicator, we use United Kingdom data for Scotland due to data unavailability.

54 Data from 2019 for all countries except for Denmark and Iceland for which data is from 2018.

55 Data from 2019 for all countries except for: Denmark and Finland (2018 data), and Ireland (2017 data).

56 Data from 2021 for all countries, except for Ireland for which data is from 2020.

57 Data from 2021 for all countries, except for Iceland for which data is from 2019.

58 For this indicator, we use United Kingdom data for Scotland due to data unavailability.

59 Data from 2019 for all countries except for: (i) the United Kingdom (2020), and (ii) Denmark and Iceland (2018).

60 Data from 2019 for all countries except for: Denmark and Finland (2018 data), and Ireland (2017 data)

61 There is no data on the disability employment gap for Iceland in 2021.

62 Scottish Parliament (2023) Devolved and Reserved Powers.

63 Holland P. (2021) Will Disabled Workers Be Winners or Losers in the Post-COVID-19 Labour Market. Disabilities, 1(3), 161-173.

64 Holland P., Nylen L., Thielen K., van der Wel K.A., Chen W.H., Barr B., Burnstom B., Diderichsen F., Andersen P.K., Dahl E., Clayton S., Whitehead M. (2011). How do macro-level contexts and policies affect the employment chances of chronically ill and disabled people? Part II: The Impact of Active and Passive Labour Market policies. International Journal of Health Services, 41(3), 415-430.

65 Converted from EUR to GBP using the latest exchange rate as of 05/06/2023. The value in EUR was EUR 12.7 billion.

66 Danish Agency for Labour Market and Recruitment (2023) Flexicurity.

67 Danish Agency for Labour Market and Recruitment (2023) Measures for placing disabled people in employment.

68 Scottish Government (2018) A Fairer Scotland for Disabled People: Employment Action Plan.

69 Scottish Government, People Directorate (2019) Recruitment and retention plan for disabled people: 2019.

70 Scottish Government (2022) Fair Work action plan: becoming a leading Fair Work nation by 2025.

71 Between October-December 2022, 18.9% of economically inactive women reported that they wanted a job.

72 Office for National Statistics (2023) INAC01 SA: Economic inactivity by reason (seasonally adjusted), Dataset.

73 Jarvie M., Shorto S., and Parlett H. (2021) Childcare Survey 2021. Family and Childcare Trust.

74 Thenevon O. (2013) Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD. OECD Social, Employment and Migration Working Papers No. 145.

75 Thenevon O. (2013) Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD. OECD Social, Employment and Migration Working Papers No. 145.

76 Del Rey E., Kyriacou A., & Silva J.I. (2021) Maternity leave and female labour force participation, evidence from 159 countries. Journal of Population Economics, 34, 803-824.

77 Research findings on the impact of extended maternity leave are mixed. While overall, most studies show a positive effect to female employment rates both before and after maternity, the effects significantly rely on the type of maternal leave policy in each country. Research by the RAND Corporation (2016) finds that maternity leave of between 20-30 weeks has overall significant positive economic effects. However, extending maternity leave for periods longer than six months can pose negative effects on mother’s career opportunities. Strang L., & Broeks M. (2016) Maternity leave policies: Trade-offs between labour market demands and health benefits for children. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation, 2016.

78 Kinoshita Y. & Guo F. (2015) What Can Boost Female Labor Participation in Asia? International Monetary Fund, Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific. IMF Working Paper, Working Paper No. 2015/056.

79 infoFinland.fi (2022) Family leave.

80 infoFinland.fi (2022) Benefits for a family after a child is born.

81 infoFinland.fi (2022) Benefits for looking after a child at home.

82 mygov.scot (2022) Maternity, paternity and parental leave: employer guide.

83 GOV.UK – Shared Parental Leave and Pay.

84 Equality and Human Rights Commission (2015) Pregnancy and Maternity-Related Discrimination and Disadvantage, First Findings: Surveys of Employers and Mothers. BIS Research Paper No. 235.

85 Ministry of Education and Culture, Early childhood education and care: Children’s right to early childhood education and care.

86 infoFinland.fi (2022) Early childhood education.

87 City of Helsinki (2023) How much does early childhood education cost?

88 Converted from EUR to GBP using the latest exchange rate as of 28/06/2023. The values in EUR are EUR 295 and EUR 3,245 respectively for the maximum childcare fee for the first child, and EUR 118 and EUR 1298 for the maximum childcare fee charged for the second youngest child of a family

89 The annual figure is calculated as equal to the cost of 11 months of childcare, as no fees are charged in July.

90 Converted from EUR to GBP using the latest exchange rate as of 28/06/2023. The values in EUR are EUR 28 and EUR 308 respectively.

91 Jarvie M., Shorto S., and Parlett H. (2021) Childcare Survey 2021. Family and Childcare Trust.

92 Some children who are two years old are also eligible for state-funded childcare, including children who have experienced care, children of parents who have experienced care, and children of people who are entitled to some types of benefits such as income support, incapacity benefit, or severe disablement allowance.

93 Mygov.scot (2023) Funded early learning and childcare.

94 GOV.UK – Tax-Free Childcare.

95 Scottish Government (2021) A fairer, greener Scotland, Programme for Government 2021-22.

96 Scottish Government (2022) A Stronger & More Resilient Scotland, The Programme for Government 2022-23.

97 This indicator refers to young people between the ages of 16-24 for England and Scotland.

98 O’Reilly J., Eichhorst W., Gábos A., Hadjivassiliou K., Lain D., Leschke J., McGuiness S., Kureková L.M., Nazio T., Ortlieb R., Russel H., & Villa P. (2015) Five Characteristics of Youth Unemployment in Europe: Flexibility, Education, Migration, Family Legacies, and EU Policy. SAGE Open, 5(1).

99 ibid

100 ibid

101 ibid

102 Pastore F. (2018) Why is youth unemployment so high and different across countries? IZA World of Labour 2018: 420. doi: 10.15185/izawol.420

103 Pastore F. (2018) Why is youth unemployment so high and different across countries? IZA World of Labour 2018: 420. doi: 10.15185/izawol.420

104 O’Reilly J., Eichhorst W., Gábos A., Hadjivassiliou K., Lain D., Leschke J., McGuiness S., Kureková L.M., Nazio T., Ortlieb R., Russel H., & Villa P. (2015) Five Characteristics of Youth Unemployment in Europe: Flexibility, Education, Migration, Family Legacies, and EU Policy. SAGE Open, 5(1).

105 Pastore F. (2018) Why is youth unemployment so high and different across countries? IZA World of Labour 2018: 420. doi: 10.15185/izawol.420

106 Pastore F. (2018) Why is youth unemployment so high and different across countries? IZA World of Labour 2018: 420. doi: 10.15185/izawol.420

107 Office for Budget Responsibility (2023) The economy forecast: Labour Market.

108 Data for Scotland and England refers to the three year average of 2019/20-2021/22

109 Health and Safety Executive – Comparisons with other countries.

110 Health and Safety Executive (2022) Health and Safety Statistics in the United Kingdom compared with European Countries, 2022.

111 Russel H., Maitre B., & Watson D. (2015) Trends and Patterns in Occupational Health and Safety in Ireland. The Economic and Social Research Institute, Research Series, Number 40.

112 Russel H., Maitre B., & Watson D. (2015) Trends and Patterns in Occupational Health and Safety in Ireland. The Economic and Social Research Institute, Research Series, Number 40.

113 Healthy Ireland, Government of Ireland – Healthy Ireland Strategic Action Plan 2021-2025.

114 Healthy Ireland, Government of Ireland – Healthy Ireland at Work, A National Framework for Healthy Workplaces in Ireland 2021-2025.

115 ibid

116 Health and Safety Executive (2022) Health and Safety Statistics in the United Kingdom compared with European Countries, 2022.

117 Data for Scotland and England refers to the three year average of 2019/20-2021/22.

118 The indicator used for the gender pay gap in the International Fair Work Nation Framework is different than the indicator used for the Fair Work Measurement Framework in the previous chapter. The indicator here refers to all paid employees as opposed to the indicator in the Measurement Framework that refers to full-time employees only. We decided to use an indicator for all paid employees for the gender pay gap in Scotland in the International Fair Work Nation Framework, as this was the definition most commonly reported in international data sources.

119 Data for Ireland are for 2020.

120 PwC (2023) Women in Work 2023: Closing the Gender Pay Gap for good: A focus on the motherhood penalty.

121 Vacas-Soriano C. (2017) The ‘Great Recession’ and low pay in Europe. European Journal of Industrial Relations, Volume 24, Issue 3.

122 Alma Economics analysis of Annual Population Survey data

123 Eurostat (2023) Part time employment as a percentage of the total employment, by sex and age (%).

124 STATBEL Belgium in Figures (2023) Gender pay gap.

125 OECD (2012) Closing the Gender Gap: Act Now, OECD Publishing

126 Eurostat data.

127 Scottish Government (2021) International mechanisms to revalue women’s work: Research exploring and evaluating international mechanisms that aim to revalue or result in the revaluation of women’s work. Director-General Communities and Centre for Research in Employment and Work, University of Greenwich.

128 More information about the Institute for the Equality of Women and Men.

129 Legal Information Institute, Cornell Law School. Women and Justice: Belgium.

130 ibid

131 Scottish Government (2021) International mechanisms to revalue women’s work: Research exploring and evaluating international mechanisms that aim to revalue or result in the revaluation of women’s work. Director-General Communities and Centre for Research in Employment and Work, University of Greenwich.

132 Government Equalities Office (2023) Statutory guidance, Overview.

133 Government Equalities Office (2023) Statutory guidance, What to Report.

134 Government Equalities Office – Four steps to developing a gender pay gap action plan.

135 Scottish Government, Children and Families Directorate – Gender Equality: Gender equality in the workplace.

136 Scottish Government (2019) A fairer Scotland for women: gender pay gap action plan.

137 Scottish Business Pledge (2019) About the Scottish Business Pledge.

138 Scottish Business Pledge (2019) Action to address the gender pay gap.

139 Green A., & Livanos I. (2017) Involuntary non-standard employment in Europe. European Urban and Regional Studies, Volume 24, Issue 2, 175-192.

140 Canzio L.I., Bühlmann F., and Masdonati J. (2022) Job satisfaction across Europe: An analysis of the heterogeneous temporary workforce in 27 countries. Economic and Industrial Democracy, Volume 0: Ahead of Print.

141 Data for Iceland are for 2019.

142 Canzio L.I., Bühlmann F., and Masdonati J. (2022) Job satisfaction across Europe: An analysis of the heterogeneous temporary workforce in 27 countries. Economic and Industrial Democracy, Volume 0: Ahead of Print.

143 Canzio L.I., Bühlmann F., and Masdonati J. (2022) Job satisfaction across Europe: An analysis of the heterogeneous temporary workforce in 27 countries. Economic and Industrial Democracy, Volume 0: Ahead of Print.

144 Bell D.N.F. & Blaunchflower D.G. (2018) Underemployment in the US and Europe. National Bureau of Economic Research

145 Green A., & Livanos I. (2017) Involuntary non-standard employment in Europe. European Urban and Regional Studies, Volume 24, Issue 2, 175-192.

146 Miežienė R., Krutulienė S., & Gruževskis B. (2021) Identifying the main determinants of Part-Time Employment in EU Countries. Review of Economic Perspectives, Vol. 21, Issue 2, 2021, pp. 151-171, DOI: 10.2478/revecp-2021-0007

147 Hartog J. & Salverda W. (2018) The labor market in the Netherlands, 2001-2016. IZA World of Labour, ISSN 2054-9571, Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA), Bonn.

148 Van Doorn, L. & Van Vliet O. (2022) Wishing for More: Technological Change, the Rise of Involuntary Part-Time Employment and the Role of Active Labour Market Policies. Journal of Social Policy, 1-21. doi:10.1017/S0047279422000629

149 Van Doorn, L. & Van Vliet O. (2022) Wishing for More: Technological Change, the Rise of Involuntary Part-Time Employment and the Role of Active Labour Market Policies. Journal of Social Policy, 1-21. doi:10.1017/S0047279422000629

150 Vacas-Soriano C. (2018) The ‘Great Recession’ and low pay in Europe. European Journal of Industrial Relations, Volume 24, Issue 3, pp. 205-220.

151 The Office for National Statistics (2019) Low and high pay in the UK: 2019.

152 Eurostat (2023) Part-time employment as percentage of the total employment, by sex and age (%).

153 In Belgium, 9.2% of full-time workers in 2018 and 11.5% of full-time workers in 2019 were low paid, while in Denmark, 8.7% of full-time workers were low paid in 2018. The figures for the United Kingdom were 10.3% and 9.6% in 2018 and 2019 respectively.

154 Office for National Statistics (2018) Low and high pay in the UK: 2018.

155 Office for National Statistics (2019) Low and high pay in the UK:2019.

156 Alma Economics analysis of 2019 Annual Population Survey data

157 Eurostat (2023) Part-time employment as percentage of the total employment, by sex and age (%).

158 McKnight A., Stewart K., Himmelweit S.M., Palillo M. (2016) Low pay and in-work poverty: preventative measures and preventative approaches, Evidence Review. European Commission, Directorate-General for Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion, Directorate Social Affairs, Unit C1 – Social Investment Strategy, Brussels.

159 McKnight A., Stewart K., Himmelweit S.M., Palillo M. (2016) Low pay and in-work poverty: preventative measures and preventative approaches, Evidence Review. European Commission, Directorate-General for Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion, Directorate Social Affairs, Unit C1 – Social Investment Strategy, Brussels.

160 McKnight A., Stewart K., Himmelweit S.M., Palillo M. (2016) Low pay and in-work poverty: preventative measures and preventative approaches, Evidence Review. European Commission, Directorate-General for Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion, Directorate Social Affairs, Unit C1 – Social Investment Strategy, Brussels.

161 It is important to note that data for Scotland is only available for 2020, while the figures for the international comparators are for 2019. As a result, although these figures indicate the relative performance of the countries, they are not directly comparable, as differences may also be influenced by time-related factors – for example, the effect of the Covid-19 pandemic in 2020.

162 2020 for Scotland.

163 In the Fair Work Measurement Framework, in Chapter 1, we use two different data sources for the indicator on skills underutilisation, one is reported by employers (Employer Skills Survey), and one by workers (Working Lives Survey). For the International Framework, we opted for the indicator that is reported by workers, as the data sources for the international comparator countries are derived from the EU Labour Force Survey, a survey of individuals.

164 Government Office for Science (2017) Skills and lifelong learning: cost of skills underutilisation, Research and Analysis.

165 Rafferty A. (2019) Skill Underutilisation and Under-Skilling in Europe: The Role of Workplace Discrimination. Work, Employment and Society, Volume 34, Issue 2, p.p. 317–335.

166 McGuiness S., Pouliakas K., Redmond P. (2018) Skills mismatch: Concepts, Measurement and Policy Approaches. Journal of Economic Surveys, Volume 32, Issue 4, pp. 985-1015.

167 McGuiness S., Pouliakas K., Redmond P. (2018) Skills mismatch: Concepts, Measurement and Policy Approaches. Journal of Economic Surveys, Volume 32, Issue 4, pp. 985-1015.

168 McGuiness S., Pouliakas K., Redmond P. (2018) Skills mismatch: Concepts, Measurement and Policy Approaches. Journal of Economic Surveys, Volume 32, Issue 4, pp. 985-1015.

169 McGuiness S., Pouliakas K., Redmond P. (2018) Skills mismatch: Concepts, Measurement and Policy Approaches. Journal of Economic Surveys, Volume 32, Issue 4, pp. 985-1015.

170 House of Commons Library (2022) Potential merits of devolving employment law to Scotland, Research Briefing.

171 Trade Union Congress, Guide to: Collective bargaining.

172 Vandaele, K. (2019) Bleak prospects: mapping trade union membership in Europe since 2000. European Trade Union Institute Printshop, Brussels, ISBN: 978-2-87452-536-0, 2019, Available at SSRN

173 ibid

174 Lansbury R.D. (2021) The Ghent system of social insurance: a model for Australia? Labour & Industry: a journal of the social and economic relations of work, DOI: 10.1080/10301763.2021.1953223

175 Vandaele, K. (2019) Bleak prospects: mapping trade union membership in Europe since 2000. European Trade Union Institute Printshop, Brussels, ISBN: 978-2-87452-536-0, 2019, Available at SSRN:

176 Lansbury, R.D. (2021) The Ghent system of social insurance: a model for Australia? Labour and Industry, 31:3, 312-319, DOI

177 The alternative measure of the UK average for the percentage of workers whose pay and conditions are affected by collective bargaining, as reported by employers in the Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings, was significantly higher at 39.2% in 2019.

178 Collective bargaining coverage – OECD.Stat.

179 Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings, Office for National Statistics

180 Data for Finland and Denmark are for 2018, and data for Ireland are for 2017.

181 The chart presents two values for collective bargaining for Scotland, (i) collective bargaining reported by workers drawn from the Labour Force Survey, and (ii) collective bargaining reported by employers drawn from the Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings.

182 Federal Ministry of Labour and Economy, Republic of Austria (2023) Collective Agreements.

183 Aumayr-Pintar C. & Rasche M. (2019) Minimum wages in low-paid sectoral collective agreements. Eurofound.

184 Federal Public Service, Employment, Labour and Social Dialogue (2023) Working conditions provided by collective agreements made compulsory by Royal Decree (sanctioned under criminal law)

185 Van Gyes G., van Herreweghe D., Smits I., and Vandekerckhove S. () Opposites attract? Decentralisation tendencies in the most organised collective bargaining system in Europe. Belgium in the period 2012-2016, Chapter 3 in Multi-employer bargaining under pressure, Decentralisation trends in five European countries edited by Leonardi S., and Pedersini R. European Trade Union Institute for Research.

186 OECD (2017) Collective Bargaining in OECD and accession countries, Iceland.

187 ibid

188 Scottish Government (2021) Fair Work Action Plan, boosting productivity by developing Scotland as a world-leading Fair Work Nation.

189 Alma Economics (2021) Covid-19 and employment changes in Wales: Promising interventions to improve health and health equity, Narrative Summary. Commissioned by Public Health Wales.

190 OECD in co-operation with the European Commission’s Directorate-General for Structural Reform Support (DG-Reform) (2021) Institutional and regulatory set-up of active labour market policy provision in Denmark, Research Note. Improving the Provision of Active Labour Market Policies in Estonia, SRSS/S2019/036, European Union Structural Reform Support Programme.

191 ibid

192 Hendeliowitz J. (2008) Danish Employment Policy, National Target Setting, Regional Performance Management and Local Delivery. Employment Region, Copenhagen & Zealand The Danish National Labour Market Authority.

193 Danish Agency for Labour Market and Recruitment (2020) Measures for placing disabled persons in employment.

194 Van Doorn, L. & Van Vliet O. (2022) Wishing for More: Technological Change, the Rise of Involuntary Part-Time Employment and the Role of Active Labour Market Policies. Journal of Social Policy, 1-21. doi:10.1017/S0047279422000629

195 Thenevon O. (2013) Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD. OECD Social, Employment and Migration Working Papers No. 145.

196 Scottish Government (2022) Fair Work Action Plan: Becoming a leading Fair Work Nation by 2025.

197 Scottish Government (2022) Fair Work Action Plan: Becoming a leading Fair Work Nation by 2025.

198 Scottish Government (2022) Fair Work Action Plan: Becoming a leading Fair Work Nation by 2025.

199 Scottish Government (2022) Scotland's Labour Market: People, Places and Regions - Protected Characteristics Supporting Tables. Scotland's Labour Market: People, Places and Regions – Protected Characteristics. Statistics from the Annual Population Survey 2021, Publication – Statistics

200 Office for National Statistics (2022) Nomis; official census and labour market statistics.

201 Office for National Statistics (2022) Nomis; official census and labour market statistics.

202 The job quality indicator tables.

203 Zemanik, M. (2022) Working Lives Scotland 2022. London: Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development.

204 Zemanik, M. (2020) Working Lives Scotland 2020, London: Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development.

205 Office for National Statistics, Social Survey Division, Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency, Central Survey Unit. (2019). Quarterly Labour Force Survey, October - December, 2016. [data collection]. 3rd Edition. UK Data Service. SN: 8145,

206 Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency (NISRA), Office for National Statistics, Social Survey Division. (2020). Quarterly Labour Force Survey, October - December, 2019. [data collection]. UK Data Service. SN: 8614